Unraveling Pulmonary Inflammation: From Cytokines to Herbal Therapeutics

Background: Pulmonary inflammation is a prevalent and treatable respiratory disorder, often associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and chronic bronchitis. It arises due to exposure to harmful gases, cigarette smoke, and environmental pollutants. Introduction: One of the main peculiarities of chronic respiratory diseases, including COPD, emphysema, asthma, and bronchitis, is pulmonary inflammation. Since the lungs are in constant contact with the external environment, exposure to toxic gases, cigarette smoke, pollutants, and pathogens easily leads to the destabilization of the epithelial integrity and the activation of the immune response. Even though inflammation is initially protective, over time, sustained inflammation triggers excessive cytokine and chemokine release, oxidative stress, and eventual irreversible destruction of pulmonary function. Objective: This review aims to elucidate the underlying causes, pathophysiological mechanisms, and immunological pathways of pulmonary inflammation, along with the exploration of potential herbal remedies as therapeutic interventions. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted to examine biochemical and immunological markers, including cytokines, chemokines, ion channels, and signaling pathways associated with pulmonary inflammation. The anti-inflammatory potential of various phytomedicines was also evaluated. Results: Key contributors to pulmonary inflammation include persistent endobronchial infections, neutrophilic infiltration, inflammaging, apoptosis, and oxidative stress. Major cytokines (IL-1β, IL-13, IL-10), chemokines (CXCL10, CCL2, CCL5), and pathways (JAK2/STAT3, NF- κB, MAPK, PKC) play critical roles in disease progression. Herbal remedies such as Aloe vera, turmeric, ginger, and licorice have shown promising effects in modulating inflammatory responses through antioxidant and immunomodulatory actions. Discussion: Sustained release of cytokines and the stimulation of signaling cascades, including NF-κB, MAPK, JAK/STAT, and PKC, maintain pulmonary inflammation and enhance oxidative stress and tissue damage in the pulmonary parenchyma. Bioactive phytochemicals such as curcumin, ellagic acid, gingerol derivatives, aloe vera constituents, and glycyrrhizin have been shown to lower these inflammatory mediators, although most supporting evidence is based on preclinical rather than clinical studies. Therefore, the safety profiles and therapeutic efficacies of these agents in the treatment of routine pulmonary management need to be validated by conducting further rigorous clinical studies. Conclusion: Pulmonary inflammation involves complex immune and molecular pathways. Herbal remedies, with their natural anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties, offer promising alternative therapies. Further clinical studies are warranted to validate their efficacy and safety. DOI:10.2174/011573398×407090251118022106